Greek Language

After discussing some thus far unknown examples of inner-Tocharian borrowing processes with direction TA >> TB, the present paper argues that also the substantive B lek* 'gesture' represents a loanword from Tocharian A, in particular from the Tocharian A form lek 'shape; gesture'. Under the assumption of a semantic development 'equality, identity, correspondence' ⇒ 'figure, shape' ⇒ 'gesture'-for which parallels are available-, A lek is etymologically connected with the independently reconstructable root PIE *leyg-'(be[come]) equal' and thus traced back to a nominal pre-form *lóyg-u-or *lóyg-o- .

In this article, we present a program designed for and carried out with young children, which was based on the four-stage multiliteracies model: experiencing, conceptualizing, analyzing and applying creatively. The main purpose of the study was to develop children’s critical awareness of linguistic diversity through popular culture texts in a collaborative, creative and multimodal educational environment. The program was carried out for two school years: a) in the first school year, an intervention was implemented to 2nd grade children of a Greek primary school, and b) in the second school year, a similar intervention was applied to children of the 1st grade. In this article, we report on the results of the first school year’s intervention. The results revealed the positive impact of the program on children’s ability to easily distinguish between different types of speech styles due to geographical, age and socio-economic factors. The children understood – at least to some extent – ...

Ονοματεπώνυμο……………………………………………………………………… …………………………………Τάξη: ΓΑΝ Βαθμός………………………………………………………………………… Α. Nostri, postquam pila in hostes misērunt, gladiis remgerunt. Fit magna caedes. Sedulius,dux et princeps Lemovīcum, occiditur; dux Arvernōrum vivus in fugā comprehenditur; signa militaria LXXIIII (septuaginta quattuor) ad Caesarem referuntur; magnus numerus hostium capitur atque interficitur; reliqui ex fugā in civitātes discēdunt.

In this paper I investigate how different factors can influence the range of grammatical categories affected by language contact, drawing on a sample of ten native languages of Latin America. The languages are all in contact with the highly dominant languages Spanish and Portuguese, but they differ with respect to a range of sociolinguistic factors relating to the contact situation. I am investigating the categories affected by borrowing in the languages of the sample, relating them to these different factors. My aim is to shed light on the reasons for why some Native American languages display borrowing in a wide range of categories, whereas other appears more restricted in what is borrowed.

This article examines the prosodic properties of the material following the predicate in OV languages of the Western Asian Transition Zone and discusses two major phenomena. First, the examined languages differ regarding the focus options of the post-predicate domain: while a narrow focus cannot be expressed in this domain in Standard Turkish, the focus options are not restricted in Eastern Armenian or Georgian. A part of these differences is accounted for through limitations resulting from prosody: in languages of the former type, material following the predicate is outside the phonological domain that hosts the nuclear accent. Second, in some languages of the area, the predicate is phrased together with the material on its left and is prosodically separated from the material following it. To the extent that this left-right asymmetry is independent from information structure, it might reflect properties of the constituent structure of the languages at issue.

This study holds that negation phenomena in a natural language involve much more than mere logical entailments in some individual’s epistemic model. The unique characteristics of negation, i.e., the persistent diachronic renewal of negative particles cross-linguistically, as well as the prevalent synchronic reinforcement of these particles through emphatic mechanisms, demand an analysis that casts the expressive speaker, not her epistemic model, in the leading role. Opting for a comprehensive account of negation in Modern Greek, the present analysis highlights this subjective involvement of the individual and suggests that it is the thinking and – more important – the feeling speaker that directs the distribution of Modern Greek negators.

Attitude predicates can be classified by the kinds of complements they can embed: declaratives, interrogatives or both. However, several authors have claimed that predicates like be certain can only embed interrogatives in specific environments. According to Mayr, these are exactly the environments that license negative polarity items (NPIs). In his analysis, both NPIs and embedded interrogatives are licensed by the same semantic strengthening procedure. If this is right, one would expect a correlation between acceptability of be certain whether and NPIs. The analysis also predicts a contrast between antecedents vs. consequents of conditionals and restrictors vs. scopes of universal quantifiers. This paper tests these predictions experimentally through an acceptability judgment task. We find that judgments for be certain whether do not correlate with judgments on NPIs, which suggests that be certain whether and NPIs are in fact licensed by different mechanisms.

espanolEl presente articulo se centra en ofrecer una perspectiva amplia del estado de la cuestion en la investigacion de la lengua griega antigua, considerada desde una variedad angulos: sintactico, pragmatico y sociolinguistico, por nombrar algunos. Su objetivo principal es familiarizar a los estudiosos del griego clasico que no se dedican a sintaxis con los nuevos enfoques y resultados. EnglishThis paper focuses on offering a comprehensive overview about research on Ancient Greek Language through a variety of viewpoints: syntactic, pragmatic, and sociolinguistic, to name but a few. Its main goal is to familiarize those Greek classicists with no special expertise in syntax with the newer approaches and break- throughs.

This paper analyses first constituents of complex morphological structures with a vague status. More specifically, using data from Standard Modern Greek and its dialectal variation, we investigate the phonological, semantic and structural properties of so- / sjo-, sa-, kso-, kalo-, kako-, kutso-, poli-, miso- and olo- and the role of these properties in the change of the elements' status. We argue that the characteristics under investigation can form a hierarchy of restrictions that could indicate the morphological status of each element within the morphological continuum (cf. Bybee 1985, Ralli 2005). Among these, phonological change is a contributive factor, however not the one that could solely determine this change, while semantic shift is the one that activates transition from compounding to prefixation. Crucially, the transition from a less towards a more grammatical status seems to be determined on the basis of the structural relations established between the morphological...

This paper is about the creation of an electronic dictionary of sports terminology, which will be used by computers in natural language processing systems. This dictionary is based on the Greek version of a multilingual sports terminology database, which was processed within the framework of the Euradic project as part of the Technolangues project. The terms were first translated into Greek. The next step was to transfer the database entries to the electronic terminology dictionary including verbs, simple and compound nouns, adjectives, simple and compound adverbs, initialisms, frozen expressions. For the creation of this dictionary, the computational linguistics team of the Natural Language Processing Unit,

Determiner spreading, the phenomenon whereby adnominal modifiers carry an ‘additional’ determiner, has been studied extensively for a variety of languages, most notably Greek, Semitic, and Scandinavian languages. Interestingly, the same phenomenon occurs in the Bantu language Rukiga. We show how the Rukiga augment is parallel to the Greek determiner in the context of modification, and how it triggers a restrictive reading when present on a larger class of modifiers than familiar so far: relative clauses, adjectives, possessives, and certain quantifiers. Considering its morphosyntactic and interpretational properties, we propose that the variation in the presence versus absence of the augment on modifiers is due to different underlying structures, applying an analysis of determiner spreading in terms of a reduced relative clause structure.

This article is a discussion of two Greek loanwords found in the Rabbinic text Song of Songs Rabbah. It shows that these words are best identified and explained through a comparison with a Stoic theory of fire, described and refuted by Philo of Alexandria. That these words, both hapax legomena in Rabbinic literature, are used in the Midrash show that at least some rabbis were conversant in Greek scientific terminology-and perhaps specifically with a version of this Stoic dispute. The uses to which these terms were put show that the rabbis deployed their vast, specialized knowledge where it was most important to them: interpreting the scriptures.

The present volume of essays is designed for those who love the Greek New Testament. That number is very large and is increasing rapidly. The drift back towards Greek is definite, particularly among ministers. In the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, for instance, three hundred young ministers were enrolled during the past session in the various classes in the Greek New Testament, besides those who had carried such work in previous sessions. This is nearly three-fourths of the total number of students, and shows conclusively that Greek is not dead in this institution.
The reception given my New Testament grammars proves the same thing. The *4 Short Grammar” appeared in 1908, and is now in the Sixth
Edition (American and British), and has been translated into four languages (Dutch, French, German, Italian). The 44 Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light of Historical Research” appeared July 1, 1914, just a month before the World War began. It is now in the Fourth Edition (American and British) in spite of the war, the great size and the cost of the book. Evidently the love of the Greek New Testament survives among preachers of the gospel of Jesus Christ. On May 1, 1923, I completed thirty-five years of service as a teacher of the Greek New Testament in
the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary. My interest in the subject has grown with each year. In November, 1923, I shall be sixty years old, if by
God’s grace I round out this period. American professors do not usually (but Dr. B. L. Gildersleeve is over ninety) live so long as their British and continental compeers (Dr. Theodore Zahn is eighty-five), but it is a comfort to me beyond words to know that all over the world there are former students of mine, some five thousand in all, who are teaching the truth as it is in Jesus. And I may be allowed a word of felicitation in this my Festjahr to all ministers and teachers of the Greek New Testament
everywhere, who revel in the riches of Christ in the greatest treasure of all the books of earth, the Greek New Testament. -A. T. Robertson
Louisville, Kentucky

The Archive of Zenon, the largest surviving private archive from Ancient Egypt, contains rich information about the lives and affairs of various persons living in Egypt and beyond under Ptolemaios II Philadelphos and Ptolemaios III Euergetes. Since Zenon had a habit of carefully storing papyri that came into his hands, and his career changed several times in the period covered by the surviving sources (263- 229 BC), the documents shed welcome light on different geographical areas and systems that he, and many of his contemporaries, interacted with.

To better understand the significance of such systems and social dynamics, the author approaches the c. 1845 texts of the Zenon archive with conceptual and computational methods of Social Network Analysis (SNA) in an ongoing research project. This contribution introduces this project and reflects on the archive’s relevance for such research, with concrete examples of how SNA can assist Egyptologists in studying relational and attribute data revealed by ancient texts and on a large scale.

In this paper we explore the intercomprehension strategies used by Greek students of French language and literature when  confronted with two unknown languages: one considered "easier" for them, i.e. Spanish and one considered more difficult, i.e. Bulgarian. The results of this experiment show that intercomprehension strategies are activated more intensely when someone is confronted with a "difficult" language.

Περίληψη
Η παρούσα εργασία πραγματεύεται τη μελέτη των σωμάτων κειμένων (corpora) της αρχαίας ελληνικής γλώσσας με απώτερο στόχο τη γλωσσική της διδασκαλία. Ειδικότερα, διερευνώνται οι δυνατότητες αυτών των σωμάτων κειμένων μέσω προσωπικής χρήσης τους, ώστε να παρατηρηθεί το μέγεθος του βεληνεκούς που μπορούν να καλύψουν για τη μελέτη και τη διδασκαλία των αρχαίων ελληνικών. Αφορμή για τη συγκεκριμένη έρευνα αποτελεί η ολοένα και αυξανόμενη ανάγκη της αξιοποίησης των σωμάτων κειμένων στη γλωσσική διδασκαλία εν γένει, ως μέρος της ευρύτερης χρήσης των νέων τεχνολογιών στην εκπαίδευση. Παράλληλα, έναυσμα αποτελεί και η προσπάθεια εκσυγχρονισμού των κλασικών σπουδών μέσω των ευρύτατων δυνατοτήτων που προσφέρουν τα σώματα κειμένων. Στόχος, λοιπόν, της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η εκτενής ανασκόπηση και παρουσίαση των δυνατοτήτων των σωμάτων κειμένων για τα αρχαία ελληνικά, η καταγραφή του τρόπου λειτουργίας του καθενός μέσω εμπειρικής χρήσης τους, η απαρίθμηση των βασικών θετικών και αρνητικών σημείων του καθενός, καθώς επίσης και η διερεύνηση των πεδίων χρήσης τους και των τρόπων αξιοποίησής τους κατά τη γλωσσική διδασκαλία.
Η παραπάνω διερεύνηση πραγματοποιήθηκε ενδεικτικά στο Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, το Perseus Digital Library, το Diorisis Ancient Greek Corpus, τα σώματα κειμένων της Πύλης για την Ελληνική Γλώσσα του Κέντρου Ελληνικής Γλώσσας και, τέλος, το Greek Inscriptions PHI. Η διαδικασία εξελίχθηκε στο καθένα με τη χρήση παραδειγμάτων, τα οποία επιλέχθηκαν για να καλύψουν συγκεκριμένα γλωσσικά επίπεδα που απαιτούνται για τη γλωσσική διδασκαλία των αρχαίων ελληνικών.
Όλη αυτή η ερευνητική διαδικασία στηρίζεται στη θεωρητική ανασκόπηση του πεδίου των σωμάτων κειμένων γενικά, ως επιστημονικού κλάδου και ως μεθοδολογικού εργαλείου για την προσέγγιση και τη μελέτη της γλώσσας υπό ένα σύγχρονο τεχνολογικό πρίσμα που επιτρέπει την ποιοτική και ποσοτική γλωσσική ανάλυση.
Από το εγχείρημα αυτό προκύπτει ότι τα σώματα κειμένων των αρχαίων ελληνικών, το καθένα με τις ιδιαιτερότητές του, συμβάλλουν σε μεγάλο βαθμό και σε ποικίλα επίπεδα (π.χ. εύρεση και αξιοποίηση κειμένων, μελέτη γλωσσικών επιπέδων αρχαιοελληνικού λόγου) στην κάλυψη των ερευνητικών και διδακτικών αναγκών τόσο από την πλευρά των εκπαιδευτικών όσο και από την πλευρά των διδασκόμενων. Παρόλα αυτά, υπάρχουν περιθώρια για περαιτέρω βελτίωση των σωμάτων κειμένων της αρχαίας ελληνικής, ώστε να είναι σε θέση να ανταποκριθούν σε περισσότερες γλωσσοδιδακτικές (και όχι μόνο) απαιτήσεις.

Abstract
The present thesis discusses the study of corpora of the ancient Greek language, with the endmost target being the field of its linguistic teaching. In particular, it explores through personal use the potential of these corpora, so that the range they can cover for the study and teaching of ancient Greek can be observed. The reason behind this research is the ever-increasing need to utilize the corpora in language teaching as a whole, as part of the wider use of new technologies in education. In a parallel manner, what also triggers it is the effort to modernize classical studies through the great potential that the corpora offer. Therefore, the aim of this thesis is the extensive review and presentation of the potential of corpora for ancient Greek, the recording of the modus operandi of each one through empirical use, the enumeration of their basic pros and cons as well as the investigation of their fields of use and the ways they can be made use of in linguistic teaching.
The above research was conducted indicatively in Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, Perseus Digital Library, Diorisis Ancient Greek Corpus, the corpora of the Portal for the Greek Language of the Centre for the Greek Language, and finally, Greek Inscriptions PHI. The process in each case was developed with the use of examples which were chosen to cover specific linguistic levels that are required for the teaching of ancient Greek.
The entire research process is founded on the theoretical review of the field of corpora in general, as a scientific discipline and as a methodical tool for the approach and study of language in a modern technological light which allows for a qualitative and quantitative linguistic analysis.
On the basis of the results of this research, it can be concluded that ancient Greek corpora, each one with its own special features, contribute to a large degree and various levels (e.g. finding and making use of texts, studying linguistic levels of ancient Greek) to cover the survey and teaching needs as far as both teachers and students are concerned. Be that as it may, there is room for further improvement in the corpora of ancient Greek, so that they in a position to meet more language teaching demands (and not only that).

According to the legends the first 6 letters of the Greek (A B H T I U ) may have represented 7 phonemes (A B H T I U ?) and inherited the 5 Places of articulation (A V T I ?) of the Ugaritic alphabet. The missing elements (symbolized as question marks) “?“ may be interpreted as the trailing “S”-dental, which is also found in *TʰĒGʷAI̮S, *TʰĒGʷASDE and  ThĒBAIS.
The first Greek polis has been identified as Thebes, originally concentrated as a citadel named Cadmea. Today Thebes is named Thiva (or ThIVA), and initially in tables to be read as *TʰĒGʷAI̮S (Ancient Greek: Θήβαις, ThĒBAIS, i.e. "at Thebes", Thebes in the dative-locative case), te-qa-de,[n 2] for *TʰĒGʷASDE (Θήβασδε, ThĒBASDE, i.e. "to Thebes"),[1][4] and te-qa-ja,[n 3] for *TʰĒGʷAJA (Θηβαία, ThĒBAIA, i.e. "Theban woman").[1]. *TʰĒGʷAI̮S may be interpreted as a 5-letter name for the the 5 Places of articulation.
The pattern of the 5 Places of articulation in the Greek alphabet may still be found as a concentrated foundation in a number of Greek settlements, which are documented in the Catalogue of Ships in the Iliad by Homer and additionally in the names of the Cities in ancient Boeotia.
This paper investigates a number of other 5-letter names: ThĒBAIS (*TʰĒGʷAI̮S), AULIS, DAULIS, (Δ'ΑΥΛΊΣ),  ThISBE, oURION, PYLOS (ΠΎΛΟΣ) and OLIZŌN (ὈΛΙΖΏΝ) for the the 5 Places of articulation. In these names the letters A B H T I U ? (including the equivalents D and Θ for T, P for B, Ώ, Ō, Y for U, E, H and O for A, Y for I, and Z and R for S) are highlighted.
The names for the regions BOEOTIA and EÚBOIA may also be based on the relevant phonemes (A B H T I U ?), but the dental symbol S is missing.

Bošković ( 2005 , 2008 ) outlines a phase-based analysis of adjunct extraction in determinerless languages like Serbo-Croatian (SC). The analysis is modeled on recent phase-based analyses of P(reposition)-stranding (see Abels 2003 , 2012 ) wherein the richness of the functional structure of the PP determines whether extraction is possible. This squib identifies a problem for a unified analysis of these two phenomena. Bans on adjunct extraction are obviated under sluicing while bans on P-stranding are not.

The name "Pastoral" was first applied to these two epistles [and Titus] in 1703 and then popularized in 1726 by Paul Anton. While this term may or may be the most appropriate designation, it has stood the test of time. These two epistles or letters from Paul to Timothy focus on Christian Ministry as far as Essentials, Encouragement, Examples, and Exhortations are concerned. Both of these writings consist of my original outlines or structured settings of scripture for maximum comprehension and clarity as far as movements within them are concerned. Verse-by-verse detailed exegesis and commentary will hopefully benefit the readers or students who choose to use these as resources in their teaching, preaching, or devotional usage.

The noun θεός (theos, "God") can be used as a predicate noun preceding or following the to-be verb. It can also be used with or without the article ὁ (ho, popularly called the definite article). Occurrences with the article are called articular; occurrences without the article are called anarthrous. These two factors yield four scenarios: a preverbal articular use, a preverbal anarthrous use, a postverbal articular use, and a postverbal anarthrous use. In what way, if at all, is the meaning or sense of the noun different in these four scenarios? In what way does the predicate noun function differently in these four scenarios? As most readers will know, the issue here is most contested with regard to John 1:1. It will be useful to see how the issue plays out in other texts. Jesus' saying about God not being God of the dead is an excellent example. Let's look at how this saying is rendered in the three Synoptic Gospels, including the textual variants.

At the dawn of the second Persian war against the great king Xerxes, a humble family from Sestos is forced to cooperate with the Persian rulers, until the situation becomes untenable and they must make a dangerous decision.
A new method of teaching classical Greek, which accompanies the main characters through their story, incorporating activities, not only for the practice of grammar, but also of vocabulary and knowledge of Greek culture. It facilitates both the use of the traditional method and the teaching method of Greek as a living language, or a mixture of both.